سینتیک و ترمودینامیک

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The basic concepts
For the purposes of physical chemistry, the universe is divided into two parts, the sys
tem and its surroundings. The system is the part of the world in which we have a spe-
cial interest. It may be a reaction vessel, an engine, an electrochemical cell, a biological
cell, and so on. The surroundings comprise the region outside the system and are
where we make our measurements. The type of system depends on the characteristics
of the boundary that divides it from the surroundings (Fig. 2.1). If matter can be
transferred through the boundary between the system and its surroundings the sys-
tem is classified as open. If matter cannot pass through the boundary the system is
classified as closed. Both open and closed systems can exchange energy with their sur-
roundings. For example, a closed system can expand and thereby raise a weight in the
surroundings; it may also transfer energy to them if they are at a lower temperature.​